Understanding how humans acquire their first language (L1) is fundamental for TEFL professionals. In this lesson, we explore three major L1 acquisition theories: Behaviorism, Nativism, and Interactionism. Each of L1 acquisition theories offers unique insights, supported by examples and real-world applications relevant to language teaching.
L1 Acquisition Theories: Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a psychological theory of learning developed and popularized in the early to mid-20th century, particularly through the work of B.F. Skinner, who built upon earlier ideas by John B. Watson and others. In the context of L1 acquisition theories, behaviorism suggests that learning occurs as a direct response to environmental stimuli. Language, like any other learned behavior, is acquired through conditioning, imitation, and reinforcement, rather than through innate biological mechanisms.
According to this theory, children are born as “blank slates” (tabula rasa) and acquire language entirely from the environment around them. Language learning is seen as a passive process, where the child’s verbal behavior is shaped by external forces such as caregivers, teachers, and peers.
A child says “milk” when wanting a drink. The caregiver responds positively by giving milk, reinforcing the use of the word. Over time, the child learns to use “milk” correctly in context.
Behaviourism: Key Concepts
1. Imitation
Children learn to speak by copying the speech of adults and older children around them. They observe the way language is used in context and attempt to replicate it. For example, if a parent frequently says “milk” while handing the child a bottle, the child may begin to say “milk” in similar situations.
- Example: A child hears the phrase “Thank you” repeatedly and starts to say it in appropriate social situations.
2. Reinforcement
When a child uses a correct or socially acceptable utterance, they often receive positive reinforcement—such as praise, smiles, or attention—from adults. This encourages the child to repeat and internalize that form of language. Incorrect or ungrammatical utterances may be ignored or corrected, discouraging their use.
- Example: A child says “juice, please” and is given juice and praised. The positive outcome makes the child more likely to repeat the phrase in the future.
3. Habit Formation
Through repetition and reinforcement, children begin to form language habits. These habits become automatic over time, allowing the child to produce fluent speech without consciously constructing sentences. Language is thus seen as a set of conditioned responses or habits that are learned through repeated exposure.
Example: A child who repeatedly says “Good night” every evening eventually does so without needing a prompt.
L1 Acquisition Theories – Behaviorism: Implications for Teaching
The implications of behaviorism for teaching are particularly evident in structured, teacher-led classrooms where accuracy and repetition are prioritized.
1. Emphasis on Drills and Repetition
In a behaviorist-informed classroom, drills and mechanical repetition are central to instruction. These activities are designed to help learners internalize correct language forms through rote practice. The belief is that the more a structure or phrase is repeated, the more likely it is to become automatic and accurate in the learner’s output.
- Example: Students may practice substitution drills (e.g., changing the subject or verb in a sentence) or repetition drills (repeating a sentence after the teacher) until the pattern becomes habitual.
- Outcome: This helps learners build fluency in producing commonly used sentence structures with minimal hesitation.
2. Use of the Audio-Lingual Method (ALM)
The Audio-Lingual Method, heavily based on behaviorist principles, became popular in the 1950s and 1960s, especially in the United States. This method focuses on listening and speaking skills first, with reading and writing introduced later.
Key characteristics of ALM include:
- Pattern practice: Students practice grammatical structures through controlled drills.
- Dialog memorization: Students memorize model conversations that reflect real-life situations.
- Minimal focus on meaning: The focus is on form and accuracy, with meaning often secondary.
- Error avoidance: Errors are discouraged to prevent the formation of bad habits.
- Example in practice: Learners may repeat a model sentence like “She is going to the market,” then substitute different subjects or objects as prompted by the teacher: “He is going to the library,” “We are going to the cinema,” and so on.
3. Immediate Correction and Positive Reinforcement
Behaviorism highlights the importance of feedback in the form of reinforcement to shape behavior. In the language classroom, this means:
- Immediate correction of errors: Teachers correct mistakes on the spot to prevent fossilization (the formation of incorrect habits).
- Positive reinforcement: Praise, rewards, or simply confirming correct answers encourages learners to repeat correct language use.
- Negative reinforcement or ignoring errors: Some errors may be ignored to avoid discouraging learners, while other times, incorrect forms are met with prompts or gentle correction.
- Example: If a student says “He go to school,” the teacher might correct immediately by modeling: “He goes to school. Say it again, please.” When the student responds correctly, the teacher might say, “Good job! That’s right.”
- Tools for reinforcement: Flashcards, reward charts, star stickers, and verbal praise can all be used to reinforce correct behavior, especially with young learners.
4. Teacher-Centered Approach
Behaviorist teaching tends to be teacher-centered, with the teacher acting as the primary source of input, model of correct language, and controller of student output. Lessons are carefully structured with limited student autonomy, focusing on accuracy before fluency.
- Implication: Learners may become dependent on the teacher for correction and may not develop strong self-monitoring skills or communicative competence unless supplemented with other approaches.
5. Controlled Language Practice
Language production in behaviorist classrooms is often highly controlled. Learners are not immediately encouraged to produce original language or express personal opinions. Instead, they are guided through structured practice where errors are minimized.
- Example: Instead of open-ended questions, learners respond to prompts like “Complete the sentence: She is ___ to the park,” which focuses attention on form rather than content.
L1 Acquisition Theories: Nativism
Nativism is a linguistic theory most notably advanced by Noam Chomsky, who argued that humans are born with an inborn capacity to acquire language. Unlike behaviorist theories, which attribute language learning to environmental input and reinforcement, nativism claims that the ability to learn language is hard-wired into the human brain. This innate mechanism, which Chomsky termed the Language Acquisition Device (LAD), allows children to unconsciously absorb the grammatical structure of their native language(s) from the limited input they receive.
Chomsky introduced this theory as a challenge to behaviorism, arguing that the complexity and creativity of language use cannot be explained solely by imitation and reinforcement. Instead, he proposed that language is a unique human faculty, part of our biological endowment.
Children often create sentences like “I goed to the park,” applying regular past tense rules to irregular verbs. This overgeneralization suggests they are not simply imitating adults but are actively constructing rules.
Nativism: Key Concepts
1. Universal Grammar (UG)
Universal Grammar is the idea that all human languages share a common structural basis. According to Chomsky, the LAD contains a set of universal principles or grammatical categories (such as nouns, verbs, word order) that are common across all languages. These principles guide the child in interpreting and organizing the language input they receive.
- Example: Even though languages differ in surface features (e.g., subject-verb-object vs. subject-object-verb word order), they share deep structural similarities that children intuitively grasp.
2. Critical Period Hypothesis
This hypothesis proposes that there is a biologically determined window of time during which language acquisition occurs most easily and naturally—typically in early childhood, before puberty. If a child is not exposed to language during this critical period, their ability to fully acquire a first language may be permanently impaired.
- Example: Studies of children like “Genie,” who experienced extreme isolation and were not exposed to language until after puberty, show limited success in acquiring complex grammar, supporting the idea of a critical period.
3. Poverty of Stimulus
The “poverty of stimulus” argument points out that the linguistic input children receive is incomplete, ambiguous, and sometimes grammatically incorrect, yet they still acquire the full structure of their native language. This suggests that children must possess some innate grammatical knowledge to go beyond what they hear.
- Example: Children often produce grammatically correct sentences they have never heard before, like “Is the boy who is sleeping in the bed dreaming?”—demonstrating creativity and rule-based understanding, not just memorization.
Children frequently make overgeneralization errors, such as saying “I goed to the park” instead of “I went to the park.” This shows that they are not merely copying what they hear; instead, they are actively constructing grammar rules based on patterns in the language. These self-generated rules evolve with time and more exposure. Such errors indicate that learners are forming hypotheses about language structure, aligning with the nativist view of an active, creative mind at work.
L1 Acquisition Theories – Nativism: Real-World Applications in the Language Classroom
1. Focus on Meaning Over Form
TEFL/TESOL instructors influenced by nativist theory often prioritize meaningful communication over rote practice of grammar rules. Trusting in learners’ innate ability to acquire underlying structures, lessons may focus more on input-rich environments where learners can interact with authentic language.
- Application: Encourage students to use language in real-world contexts, such as role-plays or conversations, rather than memorizing isolated grammar rules.
2. Emphasizing Early Language Exposure
The Critical Period Hypothesis supports the idea of beginning language education as early as possible. Language programs for young learners, immersion programs, and bilingual education all benefit from early and consistent exposure.
- Application: Language camps, preschool immersion, and bilingual household practices reflect the idea that the younger the learner, the more natural the acquisition process.
3. Positive Attitudes Toward Learner Errors
Teachers informed by nativism often view learner errors as evidence of internal rule formation rather than simple mistakes. This leads to more tolerant and constructive responses to errors, focusing on understanding the learner’s current interlanguage (their developing system of language).
- Application: Instead of correcting every mistake, the teacher may use guided questioning to help the learner notice the error and self-correct, thereby reinforcing the internalization of accurate structures.
L1 Acquisition Theories – Nativism: Criticisms and Limitations
While nativism has been highly influential, it is not without criticism:
- Critics argue that Chomsky’s theory is difficult to test empirically, particularly the concept of Universal Grammar.
- It may underestimate the role of social interaction and environmental input in language development.
- Nativism does not sufficiently address second language acquisition, where factors like age, motivation, exposure, and instruction play a more observable role.
L1 Acquisition Theories: Interactionism
Interactionism is one of the L1 acquisition theories of language development that emphasizes the social nature of learning. Most closely associated with Lev Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner, this theory suggests that language acquisition occurs primarily through interaction with more knowledgeable individuals in meaningful contexts. Unlike behaviorism (which focuses on external reinforcement) or nativism (which emphasizes innate mechanisms), interactionism strikes a balance between biological potential and environmental influence.
Language emerges not in isolation but through social engagement, where learners co-construct meaning with others. Through these interactions, learners gradually internalize language patterns and rules. The process is collaborative, dynamic, and deeply rooted in the learner’s cultural and communicative environment.
Interactionism: Key Concepts
1. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Coined by Vygotsky, the ZPD refers to the range between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with guidance or collaboration. Learning is most effective when support is provided just beyond the learner’s current competence, enabling progress through guided participation.
- Example: A child cannot write a complete sentence alone, but with a teacher’s prompts and modeling, they manage to do so. Over time, they can write independently.
2. Scaffolding
Scaffolding is the temporary support provided by a more knowledgeable person—such as a teacher, parent, or peer—to help a learner perform a task they cannot yet do alone. As the learner becomes more competent, the support is gradually reduced and eventually removed, allowing for autonomy.
- Example: A teacher models how to form a question in English, then helps students practice using prompts, and finally lets them ask questions on their own in a role-play activity.
3. Negotiation of Meaning
This concept highlights the interactive process through which learners try to understand and be understood. In communicative exchanges, especially with peers, learners clarify, ask for repetition, paraphrase, and confirm understanding, which leads to deeper language processing and development.
- Example: Two students working together on a task may say,
“What do you mean by ‘submit’?”
“It means to give the teacher your work.”
“Oh, so I need to submit my assignment before Friday?”
This back-and-forth helps solidify vocabulary and usage.
| Imagine a child describing a picture with help from a parent. The parent might ask: “What do you see here?” “Is that a dog or a cat?” “Can you tell me what the boy is doing?” The child begins by naming objects but, over time and with repeated guidance, begins to describe actions and relationships using full sentences: “The boy is playing with a dog in the park.” Eventually, the child can perform the task independently. This language growth results from interactive dialogue, where the child is both supported and challenged. |
L1 Acquisition Theories – Interactionism: Real-World Applications in Language Teaching
1. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
CLT is heavily influenced by interactionist principles. It prioritizes authentic, meaningful communication over memorization or isolated grammar drills. Learners engage in real-life tasks, often in pairs or groups, where language use is functional and context-driven.
- Application: Role-plays, information-gap activities, interviews, and discussions are used to promote active engagement and collaborative learning.
2. Task-Based Learning (TBL)
Task-Based Learning involves learners working together to complete meaningful tasks—such as planning a trip, solving a problem, or conducting a survey. These tasks require the use of language to achieve goals, making communication the means and the end.
- Application: Students work in groups to plan a class party. They must use target vocabulary, negotiate ideas, make decisions, and present their plan—engaging with language purposefully and interactively.
3. Peer Interaction and Collaborative Learning
Interactionist classrooms promote student-to-student interaction, recognizing peers as valuable sources of input, feedback, and support. Through collaboration, learners co-construct knowledge, learn from each other’s strengths, and correct each other’s misunderstandings.
- Application: Think-Pair-Share, group projects, jigsaw reading/listening, and peer editing are common activities that align with interactionist approaches.
Interactionism: Teacher’s Role in an Interactionist Classroom
- Acts as a facilitator, not just a transmitter of knowledge.
- Provides meaningful contexts and structured opportunities for communication.
- Offers scaffolding by modeling language use and guiding learners through interactive tasks.
- Observes and supports learners within their ZPD, pushing them toward independence.
- Encourages self-correction and peer correction as part of learning.
Interactionism: Criticisms and Limitations
In classrooms with large numbers or mixed proficiency levels, scaffolding and individual support can be challenging to manage.
Interactionism may underestimate the role of internal cognitive processes such as memory and attention.
It may be difficult to measure progress when relying heavily on open-ended tasks and conversation.
L1 Acquisition Theories: Key Features
| Theory | Main Proponent(s) | Key Mechanism | Example in L1 Acquisition | TEFL Application |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Behaviorism | B.F. Skinner | Imitation, Reinforcement | Child says “milk” for a drink | Drills, repetition, positive feedback |
| Nativism | Noam Chomsky | Innate Grammar (LAD) | “I goed” (overgeneralization) | Early exposure, error analysis |
| Interactionism | Vygotsky, Bruner | Social Interaction | Parent scaffolds picture description | Group work, communicative tasks |
Each theory—Behaviorism, Nativism, and Interactionism—offers valuable perspectives on first language acquisition. For TEFL educators, understanding these L1 Acquisition Theories supports the design of effective teaching strategies that address learners’ needs, promote engagement, and foster successful language development.
Activity
Name which of the L1 acquisition theories reflected in each of the three classroom activities below. Give your reasons.
| Activity 1 Pair up students and give each partner a similar but slightly different picture (e.g., two versions of a living room scene). Without showing each other their pictures, students must describe their image and ask questions to discover the differences. Example: Student A: “Is there a cat on the sofa in your picture?” Student B: “No, there’s a dog on the sofa.” After completing the task, students compare the images and discuss. |
| Activity 2 Show students a sequence of 4–5 pictures that tell a simple story (e.g., a girl waking up, brushing teeth, having breakfast, going to school). Ask students to describe what’s happening in each picture in their own words. Encourage full sentences without providing models. Write some of the overgeneralizations (e.g., “She goed to school”) on the board and later discuss patterns. |
| Activity 3 The teacher models a target sentence structure: “She is reading a book.” Students repeat the sentence aloud in chorus, then individually. The teacher prompts students to substitute key elements: “Change the subject.” → “He is reading a book.” “Now change the verb.” → “He is writing a book.” “Now change the object.” → “He is writing a letter.” Correct responses are praised; incorrect ones are corrected immediately. |
Answers:
Activity 1 – It reflects Interactionism.
Language is acquired through meaningful interaction, peer collaboration, and guided negotiation within each learner’s ZPD.
Activity 2 – It reflects Nativism.
Learners apply internal grammar rules and create novel sentences without direct modeling—showcasing their innate language-building capacity.
Activity 3 – It reflects Behaviorism
This drill-based activity relies on imitation, repetition, and reinforcement to form language habits.
Academic Resources on Behaviorism, Nativism, and Interactionism
Below is a curated list of scholarly resources—journal articles, book chapters, and academic papers—covering the three major theories of L1 language acquisition theories.
Behaviorism
- Budiman, A. (Behaviorism in Foreign Language Teaching Methodology)
Explores the relevance and limitations of behaviorist approaches in modern language classrooms, focusing on Skinner’s contributions and classroom applications. - Ajdini, F. (Behaviorist Theory on Language Learning and Acquisition)
Analyzes empirical research on behaviorist methods and compares them with mentalist and cognitive perspectives in language learning. - Academic Journals: IJEL
“Behaviourism theory in teaching and learning English as a second language”—A case study examining the challenges and practical implications of behaviorist theory in English language teaching.
Nativism
- Tahriri, A. (A Review of the Approaches to First Language Acquisition)
Provides a critical evaluation of empiricism (behaviorism) and nativism, discussing Chomsky’s Universal Grammar and the role of innate knowledge in language acquisition. - Li Zhao (Study on Child Language Acquisition—Behaviorism, Nativism, and Sociolinguistic Approach)
Discusses the impact of nativist theory on both first and second language acquisition, with implications for TEFL practice. - Study.com
“The Nativist Theory of Language”—An accessible summary of Chomsky’s theory and its application to language development.
Interactionism
- Cambridge Core: Language Teaching
“Interaction as method and result of language learning”—A detailed analysis of classroom interaction, IRF (Initiation–Response–Feedback) patterns, and their effects on language development. - Najafi Sarem, S. & Shirzadi, Y. (A Critical Review of the Interactionist Approach to Second Language Acquisition)
Reviews the core principles of interactionism, focusing on negotiation of meaning, feedback, and the role of social context in language learning. - Muho, A. (The Role of Interaction in Second Language Acquisition)
Examines the Interactive Hypothesis and the empirical basis for interactionist approaches in L2 classrooms, highlighting practical strategies for promoting interaction.
Comparative and Overview Resources
- ITTT (International TEFL and TESOL Training)
“The Role of L1 Acquisition Theories”—Summarizes and contrasts Behaviorism, Innatism (Nativism), and Interactionism, with practical teaching implications for TEFL. - Li Zhao (Study on Child Language Acquisition—Behaviorism, Nativism, and Sociolinguistic Approach)
Offers a comparative analysis of L1 acquisition theories, the three approaches and their influence on language teaching methodology.
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